Tārīkh-i pizishkī i.e., Medical History

Background and Aim: Medical history as an interdisciplinary field, despite its well-established position in advanced educational systems, has failed to attain an appropriate status in the curricula of medical sciences disciplines in Iran. This research aimed to analyze the necessities, challenges and implementation strategies for integrating medical history into Iran's medical education curriculum, as well as to conduct a comparative analysis with global experiences.

Methods: This qualitative study employed a documentary-library research method with a descriptive-analytical approach. Data were collected from different academic sources (including articles, specialized books and official documents) in national and international databases and were analyzed.

Ethical Considerations: The principles of research ethics, including authenticity of texts, academic honesty and meticulous citation, were strictly observed. All documentation was presented with precise references and respect for authors' rights.

Results: The study revealed that medical history education in Iran faces structural, content-related and attitudinal challenges. The main obstacles include the dominance of biomedical perspectives, shortage of specialized human resources, resistance to curriculum changes and lack of student motivation. In contrast, successful experiences from countries such as the United States (featuring compulsory medical history courses and longitudinal integration model during clinical rotations) and South Korea (with 80 years of teaching this subject) demonstrate its positive impact on developing physicians' professional competencies. Although Iran established the medical history discipline in 2013, its integration into general medical education curricula remains limited.

Conclusion: The institutionalization of medical history education in Iran requires implementing multi-level strategies including: 1- revising educational policies; 2- training specialized instructors; 3- designing integrated curricula; 4- developing indigenous learning resources. The study recommends taking practical steps toward curriculum integration by adapting successful global models while considering the principles of Iranian-Islamic hikmah.

Background and Aim: Iranian society, influenced by various factors throughout different historical periods, has exhibited multiple social stratifications, consequently leading to shifts in the status and position of its various strata. This research, through a historical examination of the social status of Avicenna as a renowned physician, seeks to identify the factors influencing the social standing of physicians during the early Islamic centuries in Iranian history.

Methods: This study was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, relying on library resources, particularly biographical histories and accounts of philosophers/sages from the early Islamic centuries.

Ethical Considerations: The principles of trustworthiness and integrity in the use of historical and research sources were adhered to in this study.

Results: The research findings demonstrate that factors such as: the nature and manner of social interaction, connection with the royal court, quality of medical expertise, possession of para-medical skills and knowledge, fame and acceptance, the existence of scientific and social institutions and infrastructures, beliefs and convictions, family background or social class, and the general culture of society, were influential in determining and solidifying the social status of physicians, including Ibn Sina.

Conclusion: The results indicate that Avicenna was not merely a court physician, but the scope of his medical interactions and services encompassed the general public, including both courtly and non-courtly circles. Furthermore, his critique and evaluation of the scholarly competence of other physicians and scientists positioned him as a polymathic sage and a critic. Undertaking administrative duties, along with his responsiveness and sensitivity to contemporary philosophical, religious, and jurisprudential issues of society - manifested in roles such as ministership and jurisprudence - are counted among other effective and consolidating factors of his social status during the early Islamic centuries.

BackgroundandAim: During the Qajar period, cholera spread in the country (Iran) several times. In the lunar year 1322 (AH) and on the eve of the constitutional revolution, it led to the death of many Iranians. Despite the fact that at the end of the 13th century, measures were taken in the field of hygiene and medical education. The high number of people killed in 1322 AH is significant. The purpose of this research is to investigate the factors affecting the spread of this disease and the increase in the number of deaths due to this disease, specifically in the year 1322 AH.

Methods: This research by has been done by searching in electronic sources and relying on library studies in a descriptive analytical method? has been done.

EthicalConsiderations: Scientific honesty and trustworthiness have been fully observed throughout the current research.

Results:1- Quarantines are not properly taken into account and are not implemented. 2- Public health, including urban water sanitation, was not taken into account and the cleaning of waterways was not observed. 3- There were no treatment facilities such as well-equipped medical centers, qualified doctors, patient transport equipment and sufficient medicine. 4- Social distancing was not considered. 5- New treatment methods were not welcomed.

Conclusion: The lack of attention of the Qajar rulers to the issue of health, health and treatment and the inefficiency of the health and health system caused that there were no significant medical facilities in Iran. They also did not pay attention to providing hygiene in the city environment and maintaining cleanliness and hygiene in the city environment. On the other hand, in the society, the level of belief, general belief and awareness about treatment, hygiene and health is very weak and ignorance and superstitions are also the reason for this.

Background and Aim: During the Qajar period, physicians practiced medicine using traditional methods inherited from their ancestors. The absence of an organization for training or supervising their activities was felt as a fundamental Problem. Following Iran's defeat in the Russo-Persian Wars, opportunities for increased interaction with Europeans emerged. The Constitutional Revolution brought about a tremendous transformation in all aspects of the country, leading to the emergence of medical regulations and the requirement for obtaining licenses. However, since these regulations were not properly implemented, reforms were introduced during the first Pahlavi era. Based on these reforms, physicians were required to take medical exams and upon passing, they would receive practice licenses. This article aims to conduct an innovative study examining the process of issuing medical licenses to Iranian graduates during the Qajar and first Pahlavi periods.

Methods: This research has utilized library and documentary sources, adopting a historical and descriptive approach to analyze the subject.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, honesty and trustworthiness in the use to sources have been respected.

Results: The investigations indicate that physicians had to go through a specific administrative process to obtain their certification. The medical license was considered a document that verified the physician's scientific and practical competence, enabling people to trust them for treating illnesses.

Conclusion: Medical licenses reflected society’s efforts to embrace modern science, ensure the qualifications of physicians, reduce the risks associated with traditional medicine and ultimately eliminate unqualified practitioners. Despite internal and external challenges, educational developments and Iran’s engagement with modernity ultimately contributed to improving the quality of life.

Background and Aim: The book "Qarabadin-e Salehi", compiled during the Zand dynasty in Iran, contains valuable historical information. Some of the medicines mentioned in this book have specific historical names, a known history of recognition and a clear date of creation. This research aims to extract and categorize the compound medicines with historical names and backgrounds mentioned in the book "Qarabadin-e Salehi".

Methods: The present qualitative research is based on the lithographic version of Tehran of the book "Qarabadin-e Salehi", dating back to the year 1283 AH (1866 CE). This version itself is derived from five existing manuscripts in Iran, which are as follows: The manuscript held in the Astan Quds Library (N: 10256, 1782 AD); School of Medicine of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (N: 210, 1824 AD & N: 209, 1837 AD); Bu-Ali Sina University (N: 20, 1848 AD) and Astane Qudse Razavi (N: 7816, 13th century). In this research, first, based on the documentation available in the book, 25 frequently mentioned categories of compound drugs have been classified alphabetically. Subsequently, data related to the medical history of the drugs, such as the date of preparation and the name of the drug's creator, which represent the historical identity of each drug, have been reviewed and analyzed.

Ethical Considerations: The authenticity of the existing manuscript of the book "Qorabadin-e- Salehi" as well as the intellectual property rights of the authors have been taken into account.

Results: The historical information preserved about the names of drugs indicates that the most common applications were related to potions, pills, jowarishes (a type of traditional medicinal preparation) and tablets; although there are also records of other types of drugs that demonstrate their connection to their creators. The results of studies suggest that the majority of drugs and their creators were influenced by Greek traditions. However, an approximate analysis of the data and the diversity of the history of drug categories reveal that not all creators belonged to a specific geographical region and it appears that there were few geographical limitations in the production and consumption of drugs. Nevertheless, the history of creating certain notable compound drugs with unique medicinal properties cannot be overlooked. These properties are clearly evident in the innovation of new drug categories.

Conclusion: Gharabadin-e Salehi is a highly valuable source of information in history of medicine.

Background and Aim: The skin, as the primary and robust defensive barrier, covers the body surface of every living creature. Healthy skin acts as a reliable protector, preventing the penetration of microbes, cold, heat and other harmful agents. Any reaction or change on the skin surface can indicate the onset of an internal or external ailment in the organism. In horses, these signs and changes in the body coat can be considered a criterion for identifying and distinguishing healthy horses from sick ones.

Methods: This research is a history of science study utilizing a descriptive and content analysis approach. In this research, using ancient veterinary books and sciences and comparing them with modern veterinary sciences, the health and pathogenic factors of horse skin and coat have been investigated in veterinary medicine.

Ethical Considerations: Due to the historical study of this article, all ethical principles have been considered in the article.

 Results: Specific classifications for the horse's skin have been presented in ancient Iranian veterinary texts, such as Faras-nameh and Beytarah-nameh, and were used for many years. The present study aims to refer to veterinary and medical books from the period of Islamic civilization to identify and analyze the criteria and methods used by physicians and veterinarians of that era for diagnosing the health and diseases of horse skin, as well as common skin diseases between humans and horses.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that ancient veterinary texts contained a coherent system for diagnosing the health and pathogenic factors of horse skin. However, no trace of such a detailed and precise classification is observed in modern veterinary sciences today.

Background and Aim: "Kitab Al-Somum va Dafe' Madarriha" is a comprehensive and scientifically distinguished treatise concerning the knowledge of animal, plant and mineral poisons, their effects and side effects, effective treatment methods and drugs and ways to guard against the impacts and dangers of poisons. It is attributed to Jabir Ibn Hayyan. Although this treatise is not mentioned in Ibn al-Nadim's "Al-Fihrist" or Hajji Khalifa's "Kashf al-Zunun", Carl Brockelmann in the seventeenth chapter of the fourth volume of "History of Arabic Literature" and Fuat Sezgin in the fourth volume of "History of Arabic Writings" have mentioned it, considering it Jabir's only independent treatise on medicine. However, despite the content value of this work, which led to its translation and commentary into German by Alfred Siggel in 1958, doubts have been raised regarding its attribution to Jabir. This research aims to examine parts of the treatise's content by comparing them with Jabir's opinions and theories in his other works from various aspects, to take a step towards determining the identity of its author.

Methods: In this library research, parts of a version of "Kitab Al-Somum" attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan were compared with similar and related content in his other treatises, essays and books. To expand, confirm or refute some of the claims made, articles on this subject were utilized.

Ethical Considerations: In the present research, ethical aspects of library studies, including textual authenticity, honesty and integrity, have been observed.

Results: The author of "Kitab Al-Somum" presents coherent principles regarding the function of bodily components and humors, alongside explaining the interaction between natures (temperaments). He provides a relatively precise classification of poisons based on various variables and subsequently introduces the effects of poisons as well as the curative drugs and antidotes for each. In this treatise, he mentions other works belonging to Jabir or cites some of them, which makes comparing the content of "Kitab Al-Somum" with Jabir's works somewhat possible.

Conclusion: Some of the citations, references or quotations by the author of this treatise are consistent with the concepts, content and context of Jabir's other works; some bear partial resemblance and others contradict them. Therefore, within the scope of this research, it might not be possible to reach a definitive verdict on the precise identity of the author. However, expanding this research, especially through examining the treatise's content in relation to other relevant medical works from the Islamic period, could help bring us closer to the intended goal.

Background and Aim: The tradition of writing commentaries on earlier scholars’ works has been a pivotal factor in the advancement of knowledge throughout history. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) is among the scholars whose works have consistently attracted the attention of subsequent scientists. Allāma al-Ḥillī (648-726 AH) alongside thinkers such as Khwāja Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī and Quṭb al-Dīn al-Shīrāzī, is a distinguished figure in the tradition of interpreting Avicenna's work, whose lifetime coincided with the "avicennian revival in Maragheh". Among his works, a commentary on Avicenna’s Canon (Sharh-e Al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb) has been cited, the only reported manuscript of which is preserved in the Mar'ashī Najafī Library in Qom. The present study aims to introduce this manuscript while verifying the authenticity of its attribution to Allāma al-Ḥillī.

Methods: This research was conducted using a documentary-library method. Initially, drawing upon codicological analysis (nuskha shinasi), the manuscript in question was introduced. Subsequently employing methodologies of textual criticism (matn-pazhuhi), the attribution of the work was critically examined and evaluated.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, the principles of integrity in citation, authenticity of sources and avoidance of bias in referring to texts or analyses have been observed.

Results: Although Allāma al-Ḥillī articulated medical perspectives within his works, the existence of an independent work in the form of a commentary on the Canon has not been established. A comparative analysis of several manuscripts of Al-Ṭuḥfa al-Sa'dīyya by Quṭb al-Dīn al-Shīrāzī's reveals a complete correspondence between its text and the manuscript housed in the Mar'ashī Najafī Library.

Conclusion: Based on the evidence, it appears that the unique manuscript reported as 'Allāma al-Ḥillī's commentary on the Canon is, in fact, the text of Al-Ṭuḥfa al-Sa'dīyya by 'Allāma Quṭb al-Dīn al-Shīrāzī. The similarity in the honorific title of these two scholars, as well as the potential existence of a gloss (ta'līqa) by Al-Hilli on a book titled Qanun (likely a different text or context) led to an erroneous attribution by the cataloger.

Background and Aim: Prolonged and difficult labor, as a potential complication of natural childbirth, can create numerous problems for both the mother and the newborn. Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM), as an ancient medical school, has extensively discussed topics related to pregnancy health and methods for facilitating childbirth. It has provided specific pharmaceutical measures and Materia Medica for the ninth month of pregnancy and during labor. These recommendations can contribute to an easier, safer and less painful delivery. This study aimed to prioritize the Materia Medica recommended in ancient texts by Iranian scientists and physicians for facilitating and accelerating childbirth.

Methods: This research has been done using the library method and content analysis based on the review of Persian medicine manuscripts. The reviews were carried out with the keywords like "Serkeh", "Khal", "Tadbir" and "Eslah". SID, Google Scholar, Scopus databases were searched to find recent scientific researches.

Ethical Considerations: Honesty and trusteeship were observed in reporting and publishing content.

Results: In Persian medicine, vinegar is prepared from various sources such as grape and dates and other compounds are added to it based on the therapeutic purpose. Pure vinegar used to treat lung, skin and other diseases and has been one of the important components of many compound medicines such as syrups and tablets. In addition, vinegar has been used to modify and process many plants and minerals such as cumin, squill, colocynth and pearls.

Conclusion: Vinegar is used to process medicinal substances in order to reduce toxicity or increase their effectiveness. Recent studies have also confirmed the effectiveness of using vinegar to process natural compounds. Further studies on the history and methods of processing medicinal substances in Persian medicine will clarify new aspects of traditional pharmaceutical knowledge in Iran.

Background and Aim: This research aims to conduct a comparative study of the structure and function of the digestive system and liver, as well as the stages of digestion and absorption of food from the perspective of Hakim Jorjani in the book Zakhireh Khwarazmshahi and compare it with the principles of modern medicine. Zakhireh Khwarazmshahi, as one of the most important Persian medical texts in the fifth century AH, provides a comprehensive look at various aspects of medicine, including the anatomy and physiology of the human body.

Methods: This study was conducted using a library method and a comparative analysis. Initially, the book Zakhireh Khwarazmshahi was examined from a medical perspective and then the contents were analyzed and compared using reliable sources of modern medicine.

Ethical Considerations: In this research all ethical and trustworthiness principles have been fully observed in referring to documents.

Results: The results showed that Hakim Jorjani correctly addressed the basic concepts in the field of the structure and function of organs, especially the liver and the digestive system. Many of his theories are consistent with the scientific findings of current medicine. Jorjani's descriptions of the processes of digestion and absorption of food, the role of bile and the gallbladder, as well as the enterohepatic circulation of bile, are remarkably consistent with modern medicine.

Conclusion: A comparative study of traditional and modern medicine shows that the Zakhireh Khwarazmshahi, as a valuable scientific resource, contains principles and concepts that are still valid and usable in modern medical science. This research highlights the importance of combining traditional and modern medicine in improving and developing treatment methods and utilizing ancient knowledge.

Background and Aim: One of the most important factors in the codification and development of medical knowledge in Islamic civilization was the influence of Muslims by the medical school of Jondishapour. The establishment of this scientific center and the presence of its physicians in the court of the Islamic Caliphate gradually provided the grounds for the systematization of medical sciences. This research aims to investigate and analyze the tradition of compendium writing and to explain the process of its formation and expansion in Islamic civilization based on available historical sources.

Methods: This research has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, based on library resources related to the early Islamic centuries.

Ethical Considerations: In writing this research, the principles of academic integrity, authenticity of sources and avoidance of bias have been observed.

Results: The results indicate that compendiums were the product of practical experience and the daily activities of physicians who recorded their knowledge in the fields of disease diagnosis and treatment, description of simple drugs, health instructions and medical prohibitions. These works functioned like encyclopedias in the field of medicine and encompassed various sections, including theoretical and practical medicine.

Conclusion: The tradition of compendium writing was one of the most important factors in the transfer and localization of medical knowledge from neighboring regions to Islamic civilization. Jondishapour, as a scientific center composed of diverse medical schools, played a fundamental role in the formation and expansion of this tradition. Muslims, by utilizing it, developed and organized medical knowledge in the form of compendium writing.

Background and Aim: Social factors play a decisive role in the formation and change of lifestyle. Urbanization, modern education, technological development, mass media, health promotion and healthcare development are among these factors. The study aims to investigate lifestyle changes in the the formation and development of healthcare in Izeh. It was conducted using an ethnographic method.

Methods: In this qualitative study, 20 people were selected and entered into the study through purposive sampling (snowball). Data were collected using common data collection methods in ethnographic studies (observation and in-depth interviews). Interviews with samples, or in qualitative terms, informants, continued until the researcher reached theoretical saturation. Grounded theory analysis was used to analyze the data obtained.

Ethical Considerations: In compiling this research, the principles of trustworthiness and honesty in the analysis, reporting and publication of the material have been observed.

Results: The findings show that the transition from natural to man-made ecosystems and the development of health care services have paved the way for lifestyle changes in Iseh. While in natural ecosystems, there was a type of local indigenous medicine based on historical and oral experiences, the man-made ecosystem of modern medicine was based on two approaches: rationalism and empiricism. Health care facilities, reducing infant and child mortality and consequently increasing the population, improving nutrition, developing urban services and facilities, increasing social awareness and promoting public health and public sports were among the achievements of the emergence and development of health care in Izeh, which have created fundamental changes in its people lifestyle.

Conclusion: Before the government entered the nomadic society, people’s medical needs were met through a kind of local indigenous medicine. However, due to limitations, it was not able to treat all patients. With the settlement of the nomads in the region and the implementation of modernization programs, including the introduction of modern education, the emergence of health care (1938), the formation of the Malaria Control Department (1965), the dispatch of the Knowledge Corps, the Health Corps and the Promotion Corps to rural areas, the establishment of maternity hospitals (1968), hospitals (1979), water pipes (1979) and since the 1960s, the increase in urban-rural clinics, health homes, health centers and the increase in the number of doctors and paramedics has brought about fundamental changes in the lifestyle of the people of the region.

Background and Aim: Manuscripts, as some of the most significant research documents and authentic works, are regarded as crucial sources for acquiring historical knowledge and are highly trusted by researchers. Accordingly, referring to ancient textual sources and extracting content related to medicine assists researchers in the process of social phenomenology. One of the fundamental issues in the social history of medicine is childbirth, which has been addressed in multifaceted texts due to its importance. This study examines supernatural treatments for the issue of dystocia (difficult childbirth) in two versions of the most renowned and credible sources on occult sciences from the Safavid era: "Asrar Qasemi" and "Herz al-Amān men Fetan al-Zamān" and analyzes them with a new approach.

Methods: This research employs an analytical method based on historical data and careful examination of primary sources from the Safavid era. To achieve this goal, manuscripts on occult sciences were revisited and studied.

Ethical Considerations: In compiling this research, principles of integrity and honesty in referencing texts, ensuring the authenticity of sources and avoiding bias in the analysis or interpretation of texts were observed.

Results: Supernatural medicine during the Safavid period was well-received due to prevailing social attitudes. Consequently, the writings of this era contain data on unorthodox medicine. The two prominent treatises of the Safavid era, "Asrar Qasemi" and "Herz al-Amān men Fetan al-Zamān", present supernatural recommendations for addressing dystocia within two distinct domains of beliefs and practices.

Conclusion: "Asrar Qasemi" treatise provides unconventional instructions involving alchemical methods, while "Herz al-Amān men Fetan al-Zamān" emphasizes the use of sacred words, prayers and the influence of Sufi movements to offer unorthodox solutions for dystocia. Specific elements to facilitate childbirth in the occult texts of the Safavid era are recommended, which involve the power of letters and sacred phrases, often presented in the form of written talismans or ingestible substances for the pregnant woman.

Background and Aim: Man Lā Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī is one of the prominent examples of medical tradition in Islamic civilization. It was written to facilitate access to healthcare for those without a physician and to teach the basic principles of treatment. This study aims to analyze the structure and content of the book and to examine its place within the framework of medical knowledge in Islamic civilization

Methods: This descriptive-analytical research was conducted through a comparative review of the manuscripts and available translations of the book.

Ethical Considerations: Principles of responsible research, including academic integrity, accurate citation of primary sources, and fair analysis, were observed in this study.

Results: Structural and content analysis shows that al-Rāzī, in concise and scientific prose, systematically classified a collection of therapeutic experiences based on herbal, mineral and animal remedies. His emphasis on simplicity, accessibility of medicines and their use in common treatments made this work a practical source for novice physicians and students of medicine.

Conclusion: "Man La Yahduruhu al-Tabib" is a coherent, clinical work; its remedies are scientific and preventive, with organized classification enabling comparative analysis of traditional medicine.

Background and Aim: Public health and healthcare developments during the Qajar era are among the significant topics in the social history of this period. This study aimed to investigate the state of public health and healthcare services in Qajar-era prisons.

Methods: This descriptive-analytical research utilized primary documents, travelogues and recent studies to examine hygiene and healthcare conditions in Qajar-era prisons.

Ethical Considerations: Throughout the study, principles of academic integrity including trustworthiness, citation accuracy, source originality and impartiality in data analysis were strictly adhered to.

Results: The findings revealed that prison locations and sanitary standards were largely neglected by the Qajar government. Prisons primarily served as tools for torture, punishment and retribution, with rehabilitation and hygiene considerations deemed irrelevant. High mortality rates among prisoners stemmed from inadequate sanitation, overcrowded and pest-infested environments (e.g., lice and rodents) and a lack of healthcare access. These dire conditions even provided a sense of "peace of mind" for wardens tasked with tormenting inmates. Travelogues documented prisoners enduring years of deplorable conditions, deprived of basic amenities such as grooming, which led to the spread of diseases within their families upon release.

Conclusion: The study underscores the severe deficiency or complete absence of public health infrastructure and healthcare services in Qajar prisons. While personal hygiene was practiced in society due to religious norms, the absence of prison baths, infestations of pests and rampant disease outbreaks exacerbated the squalid conditions. Historical records and travelogues corroborate widespread illness among prisoners and the government’s indifference to substantive reforms, even in the late Qajar period.

Background and Aim: Fatalism is the unquestioning acceptance of events and surrender to them. According to the popular belief of the Qajar people, problems and calamities originated from divine fate and destiny. Accordingly, fatalism was the most important factor in people's passivity in the face of difficulties, and from their point of view, what happened in the political and social life of society was entirely the will of God, to which one had to be submissive, humble, and surrender.

Methods: This research aims to examine Qajar people’s behaviors during the outbreak of diseases, especially cholera, using existing sources, historical documents, and new research by the historical research method that is based on two characteristics: description and analysis. Also it tries to explain their reaction by focusing on fatalistic action as a therapeutic method by asking this question: what the people and the government did and what beliefs did they resort to manage the cholera, given the prevailing social conditions in society.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, honesty and trustworthiness of historical sources and documents have been observed.

Results: The results show that in the Qajar period, the idea of fatalism and extreme passivity was one of the important factors of the vulnerability of society and the prevalence of infectious diseases, including cholera. Acceptance of fate and passivity resulting from fatalism was clearly visible during the outbreak of cholera in this period. While society should have fought this disease with the human will that came from the creation of its God, the only effort it made was to hold ceremonies and recite prayers in order to reduce suffering and change the divine will. The foundations of fatalism did not emerge at once in Iran, but rather it rooted throughout the political and social history of Iran. Therefore, it was prevalent in society during the Qajar period, especially during the outbreak of cholera, which is also reflected in the writings of European travelers.

Conclusion: During the Qajar period, the outbreak of cholera, people's fatalistic beliefs, and the lack of doctors and healthcare facilities led to the unscientific and superstitious nature of medical knowledge, resulting in the deaths of many people.

Background and Aim: Given the necessity of planning for the country’s healthcare system to achieve the objectives outlined in upstream policy documents, the use of various fields in this planning is inevitable. One such critical field is the history of medicine. To appropriately and effectively utilize medical history in knowledge production and macro-level, forward-thinking planning for the healthcare system, it is essential to consider multiple imperatives. One such imperative is theorizing in the history of medicine. This necessity has emerged from expanding the boundaries of knowledge in this field and explaining how history can inform future-oriented studies in healthcare management. This development has been shaped by advancements in information dissemination tools and the influence of social media networks in the contemporary world.

Methods: Building on the author’s efforts to propose a theory titled "Civilizational Institutions of Healthcare in the Country", this report adopts a history-centered approach to examine the role of influential institutions and organizations in the healthcare sector and their connection to the contemporary era of Iranian history.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, honesty and trustworthiness of historical sources and documents have been observed.

Results: A preliminary list of the most significant civilizational institutions in Iran’s healthcare system has been compiled, all of which were established or developed during the Qajar era. This list represents the second step in elucidating the aforementioned theory.

Conclusion: Iran entered the "contemporary era" of its history during the Qajar period. This transition was not merely nominal; it entailed profound structural transformations in Iranian society, including the establishment of the country’s healthcare system.

Background and Aim: The medical history of Iran, particularly in Gilan, has a long-standing tradition. Hakim Sadr al-Din Ali Gilani Hindi, a renowned scholar and physician of the 11th century Hijri (962-1018 AH), migrated to India during the Safavid era. This research aims to study his life, thoughts and scientific works.

Methods: In this descriptive research, data collection was carried out using a library method and by studying historical texts and sources

Ethical Considerations: In this research, the ethical aspects of library study including the authenticity of the text, honesty and trustworthiness have been observed

Results: The findings indicate that Hakim Gilani, after completing his preliminary medical education under Hakim-al-Mulk Shams al-Din Gilani and Hakim Lotfollah Shirazi, migrated to India by Akbarshah’s invitation. There, he served as a physician, advisor, and politician in the imperial court. His mastery of various sciences, such as medicine, mathematics, physics and mechanics, established him as one of the most prominent scientific figures of his era. The titles "Galen of the Age" and "Second Plato", which were attributed to him, attest to this claim. Hakim Gilani left behind valuable works in the field of medicine, among which can be mentioned "Risalah fi al-Tib" (Treatise on Medicine), "Mujarrabat" (Experiments) and "Sharh Kulliyat al-Qanun".

Conclusion: Hakim Gilani, a prominent physician and scholar from Gilan, took a significant step in the development and advancement of medical knowledge through his writings and scientific activities. This research revealed that he was not only a skilled physician but also a multifaceted thinker and scientist. Studying the life and achievements of this distinguished sage can contribute to a better understanding of the history of medicine, scientific and cultural exchanges among civilizations, as well as the importance of preserving and developing traditional medicine.

Background and Aim: Eye diseases have been of significant interest throughout all historical periods and numerous authoritative books on ophthalmology have been compiled-both as independent works and as parts of other texts. Given that two books, the Canon fi al-Tib by Avicenna (4th-5th centuries AH) and Tib-e Akbari by Hakim Mohammad Arzani (12th AH) remain major references for many specialists in Iranian medicine today; this study compares the classification of eye diseases in these two works.

Methods: This study was conducted using a library review method. In the first step, keywords such as ophthalmology, kohl, kohhali and vision were searched across various manuscripts of the Canon of Medicine and Tib-e Akbari. Subsequently, the databases SID, Magiran and Google Scholar were examined using keywords including Ophthalmology, Eye disorders, Eye diseases, the Canon fi al-Tib and Tib-e Akbari to identify relevant prior studies on the subject.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, honesty and trustworthiness have been observed in using historical sources.

Results: Avicenna emphasized identifying the etiology of diseases and tailored treatments to the specific characteristics of each illness based on its underlying cause. In the third book of The Canon fi al-Tib, he first dedicated an independent section to describing the anatomy of the eye then proceeded to introduce eye diseases. Avicenna systematically categorized diseases by detailing their names, symptoms, treatments and appropriate medications. Strengths of this section include listing Greek synonyms for diseases, introducing ocular comorbidities and addressing principles of eye hygiene. Hakim Mohammad Arzani, in his classification of eye diseases, adopted a more concise and streamlined approach, eliminating non-essential details while presenting ocular pathologies and their treatments. He first addressed internal diseases in ten chapters, followed by external diseases. At the start of each chapter, Arzani provided a brief anatomical overview of the relevant eye structure before elaborating on disease types, their causes and treatments.

Conclusion: This analysis demonstrates that the logical coherence and methodological rigor of Avicenna’s approach to describing the eye and its pathologies were perpetuated in subsequent medical texts, including Tib-e Akbari. However, Tib-e Akbari presents the material in a more summarized and consolidated format, making it more practical for clinical application at the bedside.

Background and Aim: Since one of the primary goals of physical activity is to maintain and improve health and enhance the quality of life, achieving this goal requires determining a suitable and safe physical activity for each individual. The American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association have established criteria for screening and assessing individuals' health status and physical fitness levels before prescribing physical activity. Given the valuable status of exercise in maintaining and promoting health in Iranian medicine, this study is the first to investigate Avicenna's approach on assessment and screening before physical activity.

Methods: This research was conducted by reviewing Avicenna's book "The Canon of Medicine" and performing an electronic search using relevant keywords.

Ethical Considerations: In compiling this study, the principles of trustworthiness, citation integrity, authenticity of sources and avoidance of bias in referring to texts or analyses were observed.

Results: Avicenna considers the examination of four factors essential before recommending physical activity:

1. Medical History Review: In chronic diseases, pressure should not be applied to the weak organ.
2. Assessment of Physical Weakness and Strength: Strenuous exercises should not be prescribed for individuals with a weak constitution.
3. Determination of Temperament: Individuals with a warm and dry temperament may be harmed by performing certain exercises.
4. Examination of Signs of Bodily Fullness (Plethora): In individuals whose bodies are filled with waste materials due to an improper lifestyle, exercising before cleansing the body of these materials can be harmful.

Conclusion: According to Avicenna's approach, prescribing physical activity should be done after careful assessment. Specific groups such as children, the elderly and patients require special considerations, which aligns with modern research. The two topics of temperament and bodily fullness can provide insightful research ideas for pre-activity screening and assessment, especially since, based on the principles of Iranian medicine, intense physical activity in a state of fullness may lead to sudden cardiac death.

Background and Aim: Since ancient times, there has been a close connection between medical knowledge and architecture in the construction of traditional buildings such as baths. The Iftikhar al-Islam Tabatabaei bath is one of the historical baths in Boroujerd city, built during the Qajar period by Iftikhar al-Islam Tabatabaei Nabavi Boroujerdi. This research aims to study the architecture of this bath and its compliance with the principles of Persian medicine.

Methods: This descriptive-analytical research was conducted using library documents and field studies.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, the ethical aspects of library study including the authenticity of the text, honesty and trustworthiness have been observed.

Results: The findings indicate that Iftikhar al-Islam Tabatabaei bath consists of four main sections or chambers, which are, in order: The first chamber (cold and dry), the second chamber (cold and moist), the third chamber (hot and moist) and the fourth chamber (hot and dry) based on Iranian traditional medicine. The components of the bath include the entrance, sarbineh (dressing hall), miandar (transitional space), restroom, garmkhaneh (hot room), sardab (cool underground area), khazineh (hot water pool) and the furnace. In the construction of this building, the fundamental principles of Iranian architecture, namely "people-centeredness, avoidance of excess, structural integrity, self-sufficiency, and inwardness" has been observed. The depictions of birds and flowers on the tilework in the sarbineh walls induce a sense of relaxation, warmth and moisture in individuals, while the presence of cold water in the sardab helps adjust body temperature to match that of the sarbineh space.

Conclusion: The Iftikhar al-laslam Tabatabaei bath, as an architectural and medicinal masterpiece from the Qajar period, not only exemplifies the integration of Iranian architectural art and medicine but also plays a significant role in preserving the health and well-being of individuals.

Background and Aim: Prolonged and difficult labor, as a potential complication of natural childbirth, can create numerous problems for both the mother and the newborn. Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM), as an ancient medical school, has extensively discussed topics related to pregnancy health and methods for facilitating childbirth. It has provided specific pharmaceutical measures and Materia Medica for the ninth month of pregnancy and during labor. These recommendations can contribute to an easier, safer and less painful delivery. This study aimed to prioritize the Materia Medica recommended in ancient texts by Iranian scientists and physicians for facilitating and accelerating childbirth.

Methods: This research is a descriptive review study. Authoritative books of traditional medicine from various centuries of the Islamic civilization period were selected and examined. Materia Medica effective in facilitating childbirth were searched using keywords such as difficult childbirth, fetal expulsion, facilitating childbirth, Iranian medicine and medical history. The research stages included: topic alignment, keyword identification, source identification, searching sources and finding Materia Medica, extracting the degree and intensity of therapeutic effects of the Materia Medica and preparing tables, reviewing phrases and finding synonyms, summarization, scoring, prioritization and chart drawing.

Ethical Considerations: All ethical principles related to review studies, such as textual authenticity and integrity, were observed.

Results: The effective Materia Medica in facilitating labor, which were summarized, scored and prioritized according to the research steps, consisted of 279 single ingredients of plant, animal or mineral origin. Among these, lodestone (magnetite) with 39 points, castoreum with 35 points, fenugreek, saffron, snake and purging cassia with 32 points and galbanum with 31 points and donkey with 29 points were ranked in the first to fifth priorities, respectively.

Conclusion: The Materia Medica identified in this study can form the basis for further basic and clinical studies aimed at developing suitable and effective herbal medicines for facilitating childbirth.

Background and Aim: Farfiyun (Euphorbia) is considered one of the important and widely used plants in traditional medical texts, for which numerous therapeutic properties have been mentioned. However, different sources disagree on determining the exact nature of this plant. This study aims to propose a suitable scientific name for Farfiyun based on the characteristics and descriptions found in ancient texts.

Methods: The present research is a qualitative study of content analysis, focusing on the medical texts of Islamic civilization. This research was conducted in several stages: identifying and extracting keywords, searching traditional medical texts with the keywords "Farfiyun", "Farbiyun", "Owfarbiyun", "Afrfiyun", "Afarbiyun" and "Forbiyun", as well as searching Persian and Latin databases with the keywords "Farfiyun", "Euphorbia", "Zaggûm", "Euphorbia" and "Tikiut", followed by categorizing, sorting, comparing, and analyzing the collected data.

Ethical Considerations: The principles of integrity and honesty in citing the texts used, the authenticity of sources and avoidance of bias in referring to texts or analyses were observed.

Results: Farfiyun is described as a gray-colored gum, in the fourth degree of hot and dry. This plant is beneficial for treating spleen and joint diseases, as well as countering toxins. Its habitat is primarily reported as Sudan, Morocco and Barbary. However, there is noticeable inconsistency and disagreement in the texts regarding the nature of Farfiyun; some have considered it the gum of the Mazariyun plant, while others have described it as the sap of the Zaqqum plant. Furthermore, in describing its appearance, some have introduced it as resembling lettuce and being thorny, whereas others have described it as a plant with a square-shaped stem and no leaves.

Conclusion: Today, there is no single viewpoint regarding the nature of Farfiyun. However, it seems that by considering the botanical characteristics mentioned for this plant in some texts and comparing it with species of the genus Euphorbia (approximately 2000 species), it can be considered equivalent to the species 'Takout' with the scientific name Euphorbia resinifera Berg.

Background and Aim: Eczema is one of the most common chronic inflammatory skin diseases, characterized by itching, dryness, scaling and recurrent lesions that is significantly impairing patients’ quality of life. Although this disease is not directly mentioned in traditional Persian medicine texts, several skin disorders with similar clinical features have been described, particularly in Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine. This study aims to extract and analyze single and compound medicinal formulations related to eczema-like conditions in the Canon.

Methods: This research was conducted as a library-based qualitative content analysis of second book (Simplices) and fifth book (Compound Prescriptions) of the Canon of Medicine. Key terms such as Ghuba, Saafe, Taghashor-e-Jeld, Baras-e-Aswad and eczema-like conditions were used to identify relevant entries. All recommended remedies were collected, categorized and interpreted.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, honesty and trustworthiness have been maintained in the use of historical sources.

Results: According to the investigations, the most frequently ingredients used to treat eczema-like conditions were vinegar, honey, olive, fumitory, damask rose and salt. Also, Tela has been introduced as the most widely used medicinal form extracted in the treatment of this disease.

Conclusion: Findings suggest that Avicenna’s traditional medical opinions offer a rich foundation for developing safe, natural and plant-based adjunctive therapies for eczema. These insights can inform future pharmacological studies and the design of low-risk topical formulations.

Background and Aim: Gender dysphoria, defined as the psychological distress due to an incongruence between one’s experienced gender identity and sex assigned at birth, is a key concept in the fields of psychiatry, gender studies, mental health and human rights. This concept has undergone fundamental theoretical, diagnostic and therapeutic transformations in recent decades. This study aims to investigate the historical development of gender dysphoria from conceptual, clinical and socio-cultural perspectives.

Methods: This research is a narrative review with a historical-analytical approach, focusing on scientific sources published up to 2024. Data were gathered from reputable scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar and retrieved using specialized keywords related to gender dysphoria and its history. Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis.

Ethical Considerations: Given that this study is a documentary and historical review involving secondary analysis of published sources, there was no need to obtain an ethical approval letter from human participants. However, all ethical principles concerning the citation of scientific sources, observance of authors' rights and responsible use of data were adhered to.

Results: The findings indicate that in pre-modern societies, gender dysphoria was often accompanied by cultural and ritual acceptance as part of human diversity. With the expansion of medicalization discourse in the modern era, this phenomenon was classified as a mental disorder. In recent decades, significant strides have been made towards destigmatization and recognition of gender identity through revisions in classifications in the DSM-5 (changing "gender identity disorder" to "gender dysphoria") and ICD-11 (moving it from mental disorders to the chapter on sexual health).

Conclusion: The evolution in understanding and addressing gender dysphoria reflects scientific progress and cultural, social and ethical changes in various societies. Examining the historical trends of this transformation can contribute to the development of evidence-based and equitable policies in the field of sexual health.

Background and Aim: The humoral medicine-based approach to ethics and the discussion of the soul's health is one of the most important components present in the ethical theories and works of Iranian thinkers, philosophers and physicians during the early centuries of Islamic civilization. This research aims to examine and analyze scholars’ and physicians’ of Islamic civilization views regarding the medicalization of ethics or the health of the soul.

Methods: The research method in this study is descriptive-analytical, based on gathering information through library research. This study utilizes historical, philosophical and medical sources and texts.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, the ethical aspects of library study, including text authenticity, honesty and trustworthiness, have been observed.

Results: Medicalization of ethics theory, which considers the health and sickness of the soul as analogous to the health and sickness of the body, originates in the Greek tradition. However, within Islamic civilization, it was redefined based on a monotheistic worldview and the concept of innate human nature (fitrah). In this approach, the health of the soul is defined as the sovereignty of reason over the self and the maintenance of balance (i'tidal). Beyond offering practical strategies for preserving health and treating diseases of the soul, this theory introduces indicators such as harmony with innate nature and moderation in behavior to diagnose the soul's health. It also identifies factors like capricious desires (hawa) and carnal temptations as primary threats to the soul's well-being, proposing that the path to healing lies in restoring balance, recognizing pathogenic factors and employing gradual and purposeful methods.

Conclusion: Examining Muslim thinkers’ perspectives reveals that the medicalization of ethics is not merely a metaphor but rather a coherent framework for analyzing the health and sickness of the soul. This approach considers ethics to be a science for recognizing, preventing and treating psychical deviations. Ultimately, by emphasizing concepts such as moderation and the sovereignty of reason, this theory possesses a significant capacity for dialogue with contemporary applied ethics and for offering solutions to spiritual crises.

Background and Aim: Following the Mongol invasion, superstitions permeated various levels of the people's social and cultural life. During this period, superstition emerged as a serious detriment in the realm of public health and hygiene. However, the question of what factors led to the introduction and spread of superstitions into the field of medicine during this era has received less attention from researchers. This study seeks to examine the factors contributing to the proliferation of superstitions within the domain of medicine during the period in question.

Methods: The present research is based on the historical research method, utilizing data from library sources such as medical manuscripts, social and political histories, and Sufi sources with a descriptive approach.

Ethical Considerations: Honesty and integrity in the analysis, reporting, and dissemination of content were observed.

Results: Investigations indicate that the religious beliefs of the Mongols, certain social and cultural customs of these newly arrived tribes in Iran, alongside the growth of intellectual and religious currents such as fatalism and a spirit of resignation, and the spread of Sufism within society which were social consequences and cultural effects of the Mongol invasion at the societal level, played a significant role in the introduction of superstitions into medical knowledge.

Conclusion: The results show that factors such as Mongol religious rituals and beliefs (augury, disaster aversion, fear of spirits and demons, magic and sorcery), the presence of followers of various religions and sects in the Mongol court due to their religious tolerance, the spread of Sufism, and the linkage between medicine and astrology were reasons for the prevalence of superstitions in medicine during this period. Religious leaders, such as shamans and Sufis, also played a significant role in promoting these beliefs within society.

Background and Aim: Throughout history, the design and preparation of healthcare spaces have consistently emphasized addressing human spiritual, physical and therapeutic needs. For instance, in the Baghdad Hospital, wards, rooms and even outdoor areas were designed with unique architecture, specialized color schemes and purposeful functionalities to facilitate patient recovery, particularly for those with mental health disorders. Today, the significance of this approach has become increasingly evident, given the role of therapeutic environment design in attracting health tourists. Conversely, unscientific hospital designs and inappropriate color choices may heighten patient stress and adversely affect treatment outcomes. Therefore, this study seeks to explore the importance of a "nature-oriented approach" and the relationship between physical environments and individuals' lifestyles, proposing strategies to enhance healthcare service quality and innovative hospital design methodologies. This approach not only aligns with improved patient care but also serves as a pivotal factor in advancing health tourism.

Methods: In this study, a literature review methodology was employed. Key search terms, including “Medical tourism in Iran,” “Health Tourism in Iran,” “History of Medicine,” “Hospital design,” and “Health tourism,” along with other related keywords, were queried across the Scopus, PubMed, Civilica and Google Scholar databases. The search was limited to articles published from 1990 to 2019. Out of 127 retrieved articles, relevant content was systematically extracted and analyzed.

Ethical Considerations: In this study, the ethical aspects of library research, including the originality of texts, honesty and trustworthiness, have been observed.

Results: The findings reveal that familiarity with therapeutic environments and the application of nature-oriented principles significantly enhance patients' mental health. Furthermore, patients desire to communicate their needs and opinions to healthcare providers. Additionally, cultural attractions such as region-specific symbols and colors (which resonate with local identity) can act as pivotal factors in attracting health tourists. Moreover, integrating traditional remedies and functional foods aligned with medical advice and tourists' preferences plays a vital role in accelerating treatment and improving health outcomes. Finally, language barriers emerged as a critical challenge; insufficient proficiency in international patients' languages among medical staff may disrupt treatment processes. Thus, designing tourist-friendly hospitals must address this linguistic obstacle through strategies such as staff language training or adopting translation technologies.

Conclusion: Based on the study’s findings and proposed strategies for hospital care frameworks (aimed at advancing local health tourism), it is concluded that integrating natural and environmental elements into the design of tourist-friendly hospitals is crucial for attracting health tourists and enhancing their well-being. Given humans’ innate connection to their surroundings and the vital role of natural elements in life, leveraging regional assets such as skilled physicians, cutting-edge technologies, natural therapeutic centers, cultural attractions and regionally aligned architecture serves not only as an effective strategy to attract health tourists but also ensures higher treatment quality. Furthermore, implementing such frameworks can foster sustainable local employment and strengthen community empowerment. This process initiates a positive cycle of economic development, cultural preservation and elevated healthcare standards.

Background and Aim: Pterygium is a relatively common ocular condition that grows on the conjunctiva and may progress toward the cornea and the visual axis, potentially leading to vision impairment. This condition can also cause complications such as dry eye, inflammation and particularly cosmetic concerns. In cases where the pterygium is progressive or there is a risk of vision loss, surgery is recommended, although the likelihood of recurrence is high. This condition has also been mentioned in Iranian traditional medical texts, with various treatments. The aim of this study is to describe the disease and its treatment methods in post-Islamic Iranian medicine.

Methods: In this library review study, the terms "Zafrah" and "Nakhonak" were first searched in selected medical reference books from the 3rd to the 14th century AH using the Noor software. Subsequently, the definitions, causes, symptoms, as well as the treatment methods were extracted, noted and categorized. The recommended simple and compound drugs were presented in a table and the most commonly used ones were also extracted.

Ethical Considerations: Honesty and trustfulness were observed by referring to the used texts and references.

Results: Iranian physicians, like their Greek counterparts, were familiar with this disease and described it in the oldest medical and ophthalmology texts after Islam. They believed the cause of this disease to be the accumulation of thick humor and considered it more prevalent in dry temperaments, old age, the autumn season and arid climates. Various treatment methods were recommended for this disease. In the early stages, more attention was given to cleansing the body and local treatments, using herbal, mineral and animal-based medicines either individually or in combination. Cumin, licorice, rose oil, myrrh, ammoniacum and yellow myrobalan were among the most common medicinal herbs used in singular form. However, in more advanced cases, surgery and removal of the lesion were performed, the steps of which are similarly described in most medical texts.

Conclusion: The descriptions provided by Iranian physicians and the used surgical methods are very similar to Greek sages’ knowledge. On the other hand, the description of the disease and related epidemiological points are consistent with modern findings. Although surgery and specific medications are currently used to treat this disease, it may be possible to utilize recommended treatments, particularly herbal medicines, to control the disease and improve patients' quality of life after surgery, considering the frequent recurrence of the disease or even in its early stages.

Background and Aim: Cannabis is one of the oldest and most controversial medicinal plants, described as a therapeutic herb in almost all ancient texts. The use of cannabis for medicinal purposes dates back several thousand years. Moreover, in the sacred texts of several Asian countries, including India and Iran, cannabis has been revered as a holy plant, utilized in religious rituals for centuries. This study aims to explore cannabis as a medicinal herb, from the earliest human civilizations to its applications in modern medicine.

Methods: To gather information, English articles were searched using the keywords "cannabis" and "cannabinoids" in international databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect. Additionally, relevant traditional medicine texts, such as "Al-Qanun", "Al-Hawi fi al-Tib", "Jamia al-Mufradat al-Adwiya wa al-Aghdhia", "Kamil al-Sina'a al-Tibbiyya", "Qamus al-Muhit", "Mufradat fi al-Tib" and "Zakhireh Kharazmshahi", were reviewed using keywords such as cannabis, Shahdanj and Qunnab.

Ethical Considerations: In this research, the integrity of source citation, originality and accuracy of sources, precision in referencing and analysis, as well as the avoidance of bias, have been observed.

Results: Findings from historical, phytochemical and ethnobotanical studies reveal that early human societies were aware of cannabis’s properties and utilized it not only as medicine but also for non-medicinal purposes. Due to its widespread distribution and high adaptability to diverse geographical regions, the plant quickly spread from Asia to other continents. The medicinal use of various parts of cannabis in treating a broad spectrum of ailments, including skin, neurological, gastrointestinal and other disorders, has long been prevalent in countries such as Iran, Egypt, China, India and many European nations. The golden age of cannabis began in the early 20th century with the isolation of its phytochemical compounds. To date, over 100 phytocannabinoids, including tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), to which cannabis’s therapeutic effects are attributed, have been identified. Cannabis has a broad range of therapeutic effects. It is used to treat various conditions such as pain, nausea and vomiting, epilepsy, skin disorders, glaucoma, anxiety, sleep disorders, anorexia, as well as neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.

Conclusion: The valuable historical legacy of cannabis’s millennia-long medicinal use can be considered as a robust foundation for future research into its therapeutic potential, supported by clinical evidence. It is hoped that more drugs with diverse therapeutic applications will enter the global pharmaceutical market. However, it is noteworthy that even after decades of research, significant disagreements persist regarding the legal implications, ethical concerns, side effects and mortality associated with cannabis use. These complexities underscore the fundamental challenges in harnessing phytocannabinoids as therapeutic drugs.

Background and Aim: Pregnancy induces physiological changes in the mother's body, affecting almost all organ systems. Studies suggest that these changes may be associated with fetal sex. This study aims to extract descriptions of maternal physical changes based on fetal sex from original sources of Persian Medicine.

Methods: This review study was conducted in 2023 by searching the Web of Sciences, Google Scholar and PubMed databases using the keywords: mother fetus, Persian medicine, male fetus, female fetus, pregnant women, physical changes, and recognition. Furthermore, using the Teb Noor software, the keywords "Habli", "Habali", "Pregnant woman", "Alamat al-Idhkar wa al-Inath" (Signs of male and female) and "Alamat-e Narineh va Madineh" (Signs of male and female) were searched in original Persian Medicine texts, including Ferdows al-Hikmah fi al-Tibb, al-Hawi fi al-Tibb, Qanun fi al-Tibb, Tadbir al-Habali wa al-Atfal wa al-Sibyan and Dhakhira Khwarazmshahi.

Ethical Considerations: The principles of integrity and honesty in citing texts, the authenticity of sources and avoidance of bias in referring to texts or analyses were observed in this research.

Results: Common signs mentioned in Persian medicine sources for a male fetus include: good complexion of the mother, perception of fetal movement on the right side, agility and cheerfulness of the mother, larger right breast, initiating movement with the right foot and a feeling of heaviness on the right side. Other less frequently cited signs for a male fetus include onset of changes and milk flow from the right breast, redness of nipple and leg vessels, full and prominent veins under the right side of the tongue, healthier appetite for food and the flow of thick, viscous milk. Opposite signs suggest the possibility of a female fetus.

Conclusion: Among the indicators mentioned in Persian Medicine for determining fetal sex, some- such as pulse changes (fuller and faster pulse with a male fetus), greater prevalence of nausea and vomiting with a female fetus and the positioning of the female fetus on the left and the male on the right side of the uterus-have also been noted in modern medicine studies. Based on the results, it is suggested that further research be designed to investigate and validate the evidence presented in Persian Medicine sources among populations of pregnant women. If confirmed, the underlying reasons and mechanisms for this association should be explored using the frameworks of modern medicine.

Background and Aim: Interdisciplinary scientific meetings play an important role in facilitating the exchange of knowledge and experiences between researchers and professors across various fields. Such interactions not only enhance the overall scientific landscape but also pave the way for new advancements in specialized disciplines. In line with this objective, the scientific meeting of prominent researchers and professors of traditional Iranian medicine and history of medicine was held on November 14, 2023, hosted by the Clinical Trial Research Center of Shahed University, with the aim of promoting this knowledge and interdisciplinary interactions. This article highlights the key topics and discussions that emerged during the meeting.

Methods: This article has been prepared based on firsthand reporting of the aforementioned meeting by the researchers and executives present. Qualitative data were collected and analyzed through direct observation, note-taking, audio recordings of lectures, and written documentation.

Ethical Considerations: This report is based on a scientific meeting and does not involve human or animal experimentation. Ethical standards, including integrity and proper citation of scientific sources, have been observed.

Results: In this meeting, several specialized panels were conducted, covering topics related to traditional Persian medicine texts, particularly Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, as well as the findings of recent research in the field of herbal medicinal treatments for various diseases. The speakers highlighted the significance of interdisciplinary and international collaborations, and practical recommendations were proposed to enhance this field.

Conclusion: The meeting was acknowledged as a platform for the exchange of knowledge and experiences in the field of traditional Persian medicine and medical history. The necessity of continuing such meetings to enhance the quality of traditional treatments and their alignment with modern scientific standards was emphasized.