ISSN: 2588-5588
Continuous volume
Vol. 6 No. 1 (2022)
The Father's Role in Parenting: a Comparison of Different Cultures and Psychological Perspectives
Men's Health Journal,
Vol. 6 No. 1 (2022),
,
Page e1
https://doi.org/10.22037/mhj.v6i1.36795
Abstract
Background: Despite the increasing attention to the role of the father and its importance in child development, little research has been done in this area compared to the mother's role. Methods: In this article, the father's role in child development was systematically reviewed from the perspective of different theoretical approaches as well as different cultures. Results: The findings showed that the role of men as fathers is changing and evolving from a mere breadwinner to a supporter. Most new generation fathers seek to participate in their children's lives and are more caregiving and emotionally responsive than the previous generation. Fathers have a unique role in raising children, which is different from the mothers’ role. The role of the father varies under the influence of culture and social structure. In Asia economic problems have changed the clear definition of the role of father. In the Middle East, Islamic beliefs determine the role of the father as the head of the family. In Europe, the role of the father as a participant and responsible person is improving. The modernization of society in Africa has complicated gaining a coherent and clear image of the father’s role for children. In North American countries, parents play an almost equal role in raising children. Expectations from fathers are vague in South America, but these expectations seem to be changing more rapidly. Conclusion: Studies confirm the important role of fathers in parenting from different psychological approaches and the change in men's definition of fatherhood. However, the father's roles are different in different cultural and social contexts.
Keywords:
- Father
- Fatherhood
- Roles
- Parenting
How to Cite
Afrooz. G. A., Asgharpour, H., & Lotfi Kashani, F. (2021). The Father’s Role in Parenting: a Comparison of Different Cultures and Psychological Perspectives. Men’s Health Journal, 6(1), e1. https://doi.org/10.22037/mhj.v6i1.36795
References
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2. Wall G, Arnold S. How involved is involved fathering? An exploration of the contemporary culture of fatherhood. Gender & Society. 2007;21(4):508-27.
3. Phares V, Lopez E, Fields S, Kamboukos D, Duhig AM. Are fathers involved in pediatric psychology research and treatment? Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2005;30(8):631-43.
4. Vermorel H, Vermorel M. Freud et la culture allemande. Revue française de psychanalyse. 1986;50(3):1035-62.
5. Freeman T. Psychoanalytic concepts of fatherhood: Patriarchal paradoxes and the presence of an absent authority. Studies in gender and sexuality. 2008;9(2):113-39.
6. Freud S. Some psychical consequences of the anatomical distinction between the sexes. Strachey, trans and ed. 1925;19(253):19.
7. Freud S, Strachey JE. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. 1964.
8. Freud S. Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (1911-1913): The Case of Schreber, Papers on Technique and Other Works1958. p. 1-82.
9. Avramaki E, Tsekeris C. The Role of the Father in the Development of Psychosis. Filozofija i društvo/Philosophy and Society. 2011:183-206.
10. Kohut H. Restoration of the self . New YorN. International Universities Press, Inc; 1973.
11. Dick GL. The changing role of fatherhood: The father as a provider of selfobject functions. Psychoanalytic Social Work. 2011;18(2):107-25.
12. Dick GL, Bronson D. Adult men's self-esteem: The relationship with the father. Families in society. 2005;86(4):580-8.
13. Etchegoyen A. Psychoanalytic Ideas about Father.[In] The Importance of Fathers: A Psychoanalytic Re-Evaluation, ed. Judith Trowell and Alicia Etchegoyen. 2002:18-40.
14. Klein M. Envy and gratitude and other works 1946-1963: Random House; 2011.
15. Sayers J. 7 Consuming male fantasy. Psychoanalysis in Contexts: Paths Between Theory and Modern Culture. 1995:123.
16. Winnicott D, W. The capacity to be alone. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1958;39:416-20.
17. Winnicott DW. Playing and reality: Psychology Press; 1991.
18. Winnicott D, W. The theory of the parent-infant relationship. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1960;41:585-95.
19. Mahler M, Pine F, Bergman A. The psychological birth of the human infant New York Basic Books. Inc, Publishers. 1975.
20. Abelin E, L. Some further observations and comments on the earliest role of the father. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1975;56:293-302.
21. Mahler MS, Gosliner BJ. On symbiotic child psychosis: Genetic, dynamic and restitutive aspects. The psychoanalytic study of the child. 1955;10(1):195-212.
22. Bowlby J. A secure base: Routledge; 2012.
23. Muir R. Fatherhood from the perspective of object relations theory and relational systems theory. Fathers and their families. 1989:47-61.
24. Target M, Fonagy P. Fathers in modern psychoanalysis and in society. The importance of fathers: A psychoanalytic re-evaluation. 2002:45-66.
25. Bowlby J. Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect. American journal of Orthopsychiatry. 1982;52(4):664.
26. Trowell J. Setting the scene. The importance of fathers: A psychoanalytic re-evaluation. 2002:3-19.
27. Lamb ME. Father and child development: An integrative overview. The role of the father in child development. 1981:1-70.
28. Olmstead SB, Futris TG, Pasley K. An Exploration of Married and Divorced, Nonresident Men's Perceptions and Organization of their Father Role Identity. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research & Practice about Men as Fathers. 2009;7(3).
29. Day RD, Lamb ME. Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement: Routledge; 2003.
30. Paschal AM, Lewis-Moss RK, Hsiao T. Perceived fatherhood roles and parenting behaviors among African American teen fathers. Journal of Adolescent Research. 2011;26(1):61-83.
31. Minsky R. Beyond nurture: finding the words for male identity. Psychoanalytic Studies. 2000;2(3):241-54.
32. Marsiglio W, Amato P, Day RD, Lamb ME. Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond. Journal of marriage and family. 2000;62(4):1173-91.
33. Pleck JH. Why could father involvement benefit children? Theoretical perspectives. Applied development science. 2007;11(4):196-202.
34. Pleck JH. Integrating father involvement in parenting research. Parenting. 2012;12(2-3):243-53.
35. Lamb ME, Pleck JH, Charnov EL, Levine JA. Paternal behavior in humans. American zoologist. 1985:883-94.
36. Levine JA. Who will raise the children?: New options for fathers (and mothers): Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1976.
37. Hofferth SL. Race/ethnic differences in father involvement in two-parent families: Culture, context, or economy? Journal of Family Issues. 2003;24(2):185-216.
38. Pleck JH, Masciadrelli BP. Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. The role of the father in child development. 1997;3:66-103.
39. Pleck JH. Paternal involvement: revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with child outcomes’(pp. 58-93). 2010) The role of father in child development. New York: John Willey. 2010.
40. Lamb M. The Role of the Father in Child Development 5th edition. Canada. John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2010.
41. Lamb ME. The history of research on father involvement: An overview. Marriage & family review. 2000;29(2-3):23-42.
42. Eggebeen DJ. Do Fathers Uniquely Matter for Adolescent Well-Being? Gender and Parenthood: Biological and Social Scientific Perspectives. 2013:249-70.
43. Brand AE, Klimes‐Dougan B. Emotion socialization in adolescence: The roles of mothers and fathers. New directions for child and adolescent development. 2010;2010(128):85-100.
44. Jeynes WH. Meta-analysis on the roles of fathers in parenting: Are they unique? Marriage & Family Review. 2016;52(7):665-88.
45. Tam VC. A comparison of fathers' and mothers' contributions in the prediction of academic performance of school‐age children in Hong Kong. International Journal of Psychology. 2009;44(2):147-56.
46. Denham SA, Bassett HH, Wyatt TM. Gender differences in the socialization of preschoolers' emotional competence. New Directions for child and adolescent development. 2010;2010(128):29-49.
47. Zeman J, Perry‐Parrish C, Cassano M. Parent‐child discussions of anger and sadness: The importance of parent and child gender during middle childhood. New directions for child and adolescent development. 2010;2010(128):65-83.
48. McKinney C, Renk K. Differential parenting between mothers and fathers: Implications for late adolescents. Journal of family Issues. 2008;29(6):806-27.
49. Jeynes WH. A meta-analysis: The effects of parental involvement on minority children’s academic achievement. Education and urban society. 2003;35(2):202-18.
50. Cherlin AJ. The marriage-go-round: The state of marriage and the family in America today: Vintage; 2010.
51. Byrd-Craven J, Auer BJ, Granger DA, Massey AR. The father–daughter dance: The relationship between father–daughter relationship quality and daughters' stress response. Journal of Family psychology. 2012;26(1):87.
52. Culpin I, Heron J, Araya R, Melotti R, Joinson C. Father absence and depressive symptoms in adolescence: findings from a UK cohort. Psychological medicine. 2013;43(12):2615-26.
53. Goodwin RD, Styron TH. Perceived quality of early paternal relationships and mental health in adulthood. The Journal of nervous and mental disease. 2012;200(9):791-5.
54. Gray P. 8: Anderson, KG (2010). Fatherhood: Evolution and human paternal behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
55. Li X, Lamb ME. Fathers in Chinese culture. Fathers in cultural context. 2013:15-41.
56. Shwalb DW, Nakazawa J, Yamamoto T, Hyun J-H. Fathering in Japan, China, and Korea. The role of the father in child development. 2010:341-87.
57. Shwalb DW, Kawai H, Shoji J, Tsunetsugu K. The middle class Japanese father: A survey of parents of preschoolers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 1997;18(4):497-511.
58. Bureau S. Survey on time use and leisure activities. http://wwwstat go jp/english/data/shakai/index htm. 2006.
59. Feng X. Urban high school students’ images of their relationships with parents. Youth Studies. 2002;21:36-40.
60. Yu H, Zhou Z. 4-6th Graders Attachment to Parents and Its Association with Peers Relations. Psychological Development and Education. 2002;4:36-40.
61. Xu Y, Zhang L, Hee P. Parenting practices and shyness in Chinese children. Parenting across cultures: Springer; 2014. p. 13-24.
62. Cho S-H, Choi M-S. Development of an Inventory for Adolescent's Image about their Father. Korean Journal of Child Studies. 2004;25(6):53-68.
63. Suh S. A theoretical review on the studies of father-son relationships. Korean Journal of Family Welfare. 2007;12(1):105-25.
64. Tuli M. Beliefs on parenting and childhood in India. Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 2012;43(1):81-91.
65. Selin H. Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in Non-Western Cultures: Springer Science & Business Media; 2013.
66. Ahmed RA. The father’s role in the Arab world: Cultural perspectives. Fathers in cultural context. 2013:122-47.
67. Smyth BM, Baxter JA, Fletcher RJ, Moloney LJ. Fathers in Australia: A contemporary snapshot. 2013.
68. Afrooz GA. Family Psychological Issues. In: IRI AwthTsCo, editor. 2012.
69. Rahpeima S, Sheykholeslami R. The mediating role of spiritual identity on the relationship between parent and peer attachment with resilience. Contemporary Psychology. 2016;11(1):47-62.
70. Torkamani M, Gharaee, Atefeh., Sheykhi, Fatemeh & Tanhaye Reshvanloo, farhad Structural relationships between Maternal and Paternal Warmth with Hope in Girl Students. Journal of Sociology of education. 2020;9:1-11.
71. Mahdavi Mazdeh M, Hejazi E, Naghsh Z. The relationship between perception of parental styles and resilience: The mediating role of human Agency. Journal of Psychology. 2018;3(87):0.
72. Roozmand N, Hashemi L, Edalati A. THE ROLE OF FATHER IN PARENTAL CONFLICTS ON CHILDREN'S SELF-ESTEEM. DAMA International. 2015;4(2):102-8.
73. Dex S, Joshi H. Children of the twenty first century: From birth to nine months. Bristol: Policy Press; 2005.
74. Hook JL. Care in context: Men's unpaid work in 20 countries, 1965–2003. American sociological review. 2006;71(4):639-60.
75. Guryan J, Hurst E, Kearney M. Parental education and parental time with children. Journal of Economic perspectives. 2008;22(3):23-46.
76. Plantin L, Olukoya P, Aguirre IY. Fatherhood and health outcomes in Europe: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2007.
77. Chronholm A. Dad on Parental Leave. Men’s Experience with Shared Parental Leave’. Göteborg, University of Göteborg, Department of Sociology. 2004.
78. Nsamenang AB. Fathers, Families, & Child Well-Being in Cameroon: A Review of the Literature. 2000.
79. Nsamenang AB. Human development in cultural context: A third world perspective: Sage Publications; 1992.
80. Weisner TS, Bradley C, Kilbride PL, Kilbride PL. African families and the crisis of social change: Greenwood Publishing Group; 1997.
81. Shwalb DW, Shwalb BJ, Lamb ME. Fathers in cultural context: Routledge; 2013.
82. Seward RR, Yeatts DE, Amin I, Dewitt A. Employment leave and fathers’ involvement with children: According to mothers and fathers. Men and Masculinities. 2006;8(4):405-27.
83. Pleck JH, Masciadrelli BP. Paternal involvement by US residential fathers: Levels, sources, and consequences. 2004.
84. Bush KR, Peterson GW. Parenting and parent-child relationships in Chile. Parenting Across Cultures. 2014:307-22.
2. Wall G, Arnold S. How involved is involved fathering? An exploration of the contemporary culture of fatherhood. Gender & Society. 2007;21(4):508-27.
3. Phares V, Lopez E, Fields S, Kamboukos D, Duhig AM. Are fathers involved in pediatric psychology research and treatment? Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2005;30(8):631-43.
4. Vermorel H, Vermorel M. Freud et la culture allemande. Revue française de psychanalyse. 1986;50(3):1035-62.
5. Freeman T. Psychoanalytic concepts of fatherhood: Patriarchal paradoxes and the presence of an absent authority. Studies in gender and sexuality. 2008;9(2):113-39.
6. Freud S. Some psychical consequences of the anatomical distinction between the sexes. Strachey, trans and ed. 1925;19(253):19.
7. Freud S, Strachey JE. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. 1964.
8. Freud S. Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia (dementia paranoides). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (1911-1913): The Case of Schreber, Papers on Technique and Other Works1958. p. 1-82.
9. Avramaki E, Tsekeris C. The Role of the Father in the Development of Psychosis. Filozofija i društvo/Philosophy and Society. 2011:183-206.
10. Kohut H. Restoration of the self . New YorN. International Universities Press, Inc; 1973.
11. Dick GL. The changing role of fatherhood: The father as a provider of selfobject functions. Psychoanalytic Social Work. 2011;18(2):107-25.
12. Dick GL, Bronson D. Adult men's self-esteem: The relationship with the father. Families in society. 2005;86(4):580-8.
13. Etchegoyen A. Psychoanalytic Ideas about Father.[In] The Importance of Fathers: A Psychoanalytic Re-Evaluation, ed. Judith Trowell and Alicia Etchegoyen. 2002:18-40.
14. Klein M. Envy and gratitude and other works 1946-1963: Random House; 2011.
15. Sayers J. 7 Consuming male fantasy. Psychoanalysis in Contexts: Paths Between Theory and Modern Culture. 1995:123.
16. Winnicott D, W. The capacity to be alone. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1958;39:416-20.
17. Winnicott DW. Playing and reality: Psychology Press; 1991.
18. Winnicott D, W. The theory of the parent-infant relationship. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1960;41:585-95.
19. Mahler M, Pine F, Bergman A. The psychological birth of the human infant New York Basic Books. Inc, Publishers. 1975.
20. Abelin E, L. Some further observations and comments on the earliest role of the father. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1975;56:293-302.
21. Mahler MS, Gosliner BJ. On symbiotic child psychosis: Genetic, dynamic and restitutive aspects. The psychoanalytic study of the child. 1955;10(1):195-212.
22. Bowlby J. A secure base: Routledge; 2012.
23. Muir R. Fatherhood from the perspective of object relations theory and relational systems theory. Fathers and their families. 1989:47-61.
24. Target M, Fonagy P. Fathers in modern psychoanalysis and in society. The importance of fathers: A psychoanalytic re-evaluation. 2002:45-66.
25. Bowlby J. Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect. American journal of Orthopsychiatry. 1982;52(4):664.
26. Trowell J. Setting the scene. The importance of fathers: A psychoanalytic re-evaluation. 2002:3-19.
27. Lamb ME. Father and child development: An integrative overview. The role of the father in child development. 1981:1-70.
28. Olmstead SB, Futris TG, Pasley K. An Exploration of Married and Divorced, Nonresident Men's Perceptions and Organization of their Father Role Identity. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research & Practice about Men as Fathers. 2009;7(3).
29. Day RD, Lamb ME. Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement: Routledge; 2003.
30. Paschal AM, Lewis-Moss RK, Hsiao T. Perceived fatherhood roles and parenting behaviors among African American teen fathers. Journal of Adolescent Research. 2011;26(1):61-83.
31. Minsky R. Beyond nurture: finding the words for male identity. Psychoanalytic Studies. 2000;2(3):241-54.
32. Marsiglio W, Amato P, Day RD, Lamb ME. Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond. Journal of marriage and family. 2000;62(4):1173-91.
33. Pleck JH. Why could father involvement benefit children? Theoretical perspectives. Applied development science. 2007;11(4):196-202.
34. Pleck JH. Integrating father involvement in parenting research. Parenting. 2012;12(2-3):243-53.
35. Lamb ME, Pleck JH, Charnov EL, Levine JA. Paternal behavior in humans. American zoologist. 1985:883-94.
36. Levine JA. Who will raise the children?: New options for fathers (and mothers): Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1976.
37. Hofferth SL. Race/ethnic differences in father involvement in two-parent families: Culture, context, or economy? Journal of Family Issues. 2003;24(2):185-216.
38. Pleck JH, Masciadrelli BP. Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. The role of the father in child development. 1997;3:66-103.
39. Pleck JH. Paternal involvement: revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with child outcomes’(pp. 58-93). 2010) The role of father in child development. New York: John Willey. 2010.
40. Lamb M. The Role of the Father in Child Development 5th edition. Canada. John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2010.
41. Lamb ME. The history of research on father involvement: An overview. Marriage & family review. 2000;29(2-3):23-42.
42. Eggebeen DJ. Do Fathers Uniquely Matter for Adolescent Well-Being? Gender and Parenthood: Biological and Social Scientific Perspectives. 2013:249-70.
43. Brand AE, Klimes‐Dougan B. Emotion socialization in adolescence: The roles of mothers and fathers. New directions for child and adolescent development. 2010;2010(128):85-100.
44. Jeynes WH. Meta-analysis on the roles of fathers in parenting: Are they unique? Marriage & Family Review. 2016;52(7):665-88.
45. Tam VC. A comparison of fathers' and mothers' contributions in the prediction of academic performance of school‐age children in Hong Kong. International Journal of Psychology. 2009;44(2):147-56.
46. Denham SA, Bassett HH, Wyatt TM. Gender differences in the socialization of preschoolers' emotional competence. New Directions for child and adolescent development. 2010;2010(128):29-49.
47. Zeman J, Perry‐Parrish C, Cassano M. Parent‐child discussions of anger and sadness: The importance of parent and child gender during middle childhood. New directions for child and adolescent development. 2010;2010(128):65-83.
48. McKinney C, Renk K. Differential parenting between mothers and fathers: Implications for late adolescents. Journal of family Issues. 2008;29(6):806-27.
49. Jeynes WH. A meta-analysis: The effects of parental involvement on minority children’s academic achievement. Education and urban society. 2003;35(2):202-18.
50. Cherlin AJ. The marriage-go-round: The state of marriage and the family in America today: Vintage; 2010.
51. Byrd-Craven J, Auer BJ, Granger DA, Massey AR. The father–daughter dance: The relationship between father–daughter relationship quality and daughters' stress response. Journal of Family psychology. 2012;26(1):87.
52. Culpin I, Heron J, Araya R, Melotti R, Joinson C. Father absence and depressive symptoms in adolescence: findings from a UK cohort. Psychological medicine. 2013;43(12):2615-26.
53. Goodwin RD, Styron TH. Perceived quality of early paternal relationships and mental health in adulthood. The Journal of nervous and mental disease. 2012;200(9):791-5.
54. Gray P. 8: Anderson, KG (2010). Fatherhood: Evolution and human paternal behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
55. Li X, Lamb ME. Fathers in Chinese culture. Fathers in cultural context. 2013:15-41.
56. Shwalb DW, Nakazawa J, Yamamoto T, Hyun J-H. Fathering in Japan, China, and Korea. The role of the father in child development. 2010:341-87.
57. Shwalb DW, Kawai H, Shoji J, Tsunetsugu K. The middle class Japanese father: A survey of parents of preschoolers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 1997;18(4):497-511.
58. Bureau S. Survey on time use and leisure activities. http://wwwstat go jp/english/data/shakai/index htm. 2006.
59. Feng X. Urban high school students’ images of their relationships with parents. Youth Studies. 2002;21:36-40.
60. Yu H, Zhou Z. 4-6th Graders Attachment to Parents and Its Association with Peers Relations. Psychological Development and Education. 2002;4:36-40.
61. Xu Y, Zhang L, Hee P. Parenting practices and shyness in Chinese children. Parenting across cultures: Springer; 2014. p. 13-24.
62. Cho S-H, Choi M-S. Development of an Inventory for Adolescent's Image about their Father. Korean Journal of Child Studies. 2004;25(6):53-68.
63. Suh S. A theoretical review on the studies of father-son relationships. Korean Journal of Family Welfare. 2007;12(1):105-25.
64. Tuli M. Beliefs on parenting and childhood in India. Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 2012;43(1):81-91.
65. Selin H. Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in Non-Western Cultures: Springer Science & Business Media; 2013.
66. Ahmed RA. The father’s role in the Arab world: Cultural perspectives. Fathers in cultural context. 2013:122-47.
67. Smyth BM, Baxter JA, Fletcher RJ, Moloney LJ. Fathers in Australia: A contemporary snapshot. 2013.
68. Afrooz GA. Family Psychological Issues. In: IRI AwthTsCo, editor. 2012.
69. Rahpeima S, Sheykholeslami R. The mediating role of spiritual identity on the relationship between parent and peer attachment with resilience. Contemporary Psychology. 2016;11(1):47-62.
70. Torkamani M, Gharaee, Atefeh., Sheykhi, Fatemeh & Tanhaye Reshvanloo, farhad Structural relationships between Maternal and Paternal Warmth with Hope in Girl Students. Journal of Sociology of education. 2020;9:1-11.
71. Mahdavi Mazdeh M, Hejazi E, Naghsh Z. The relationship between perception of parental styles and resilience: The mediating role of human Agency. Journal of Psychology. 2018;3(87):0.
72. Roozmand N, Hashemi L, Edalati A. THE ROLE OF FATHER IN PARENTAL CONFLICTS ON CHILDREN'S SELF-ESTEEM. DAMA International. 2015;4(2):102-8.
73. Dex S, Joshi H. Children of the twenty first century: From birth to nine months. Bristol: Policy Press; 2005.
74. Hook JL. Care in context: Men's unpaid work in 20 countries, 1965–2003. American sociological review. 2006;71(4):639-60.
75. Guryan J, Hurst E, Kearney M. Parental education and parental time with children. Journal of Economic perspectives. 2008;22(3):23-46.
76. Plantin L, Olukoya P, Aguirre IY. Fatherhood and health outcomes in Europe: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2007.
77. Chronholm A. Dad on Parental Leave. Men’s Experience with Shared Parental Leave’. Göteborg, University of Göteborg, Department of Sociology. 2004.
78. Nsamenang AB. Fathers, Families, & Child Well-Being in Cameroon: A Review of the Literature. 2000.
79. Nsamenang AB. Human development in cultural context: A third world perspective: Sage Publications; 1992.
80. Weisner TS, Bradley C, Kilbride PL, Kilbride PL. African families and the crisis of social change: Greenwood Publishing Group; 1997.
81. Shwalb DW, Shwalb BJ, Lamb ME. Fathers in cultural context: Routledge; 2013.
82. Seward RR, Yeatts DE, Amin I, Dewitt A. Employment leave and fathers’ involvement with children: According to mothers and fathers. Men and Masculinities. 2006;8(4):405-27.
83. Pleck JH, Masciadrelli BP. Paternal involvement by US residential fathers: Levels, sources, and consequences. 2004.
84. Bush KR, Peterson GW. Parenting and parent-child relationships in Chile. Parenting Across Cultures. 2014:307-22.
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